Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP

Headline: Appellate court affirms summary judgment for law firm in malpractice suit

Citation:

Court: Texas Court of Appeals · Filed: 2026-02-04 · Docket: 07-26-00026-CV · Nature of Suit: Damages
Published
This case reinforces the high burden of proof plaintiffs face in legal malpractice claims, particularly the necessity of expert testimony to establish the standard of care and causation. It serves as a reminder to attorneys and litigants that conclusory statements are insufficient to survive summary judgment. moderate affirmed
Outcome: Defendant Win
Impact Score: 15/100 — Low impact: This case is narrowly focused with minimal precedential value.
Legal Topics: Legal MalpracticeStandard of Care for AttorneysCausation in Legal MalpracticeSummary Judgment Burden of ProofExpert Testimony Requirements
Legal Principles: Res ipsa loquitur (not applicable here)Burden of proof on summary judgmentProximate causeStandard of care

Brief at a Glance

A former client's legal malpractice lawsuit against his attorneys was dismissed because he couldn't prove their alleged mistakes actually caused him to lose his original case.

  • Plaintiffs in legal malpractice cases must present specific evidence of both attorney negligence and causation.
  • Failure to demonstrate how an attorney's alleged errors would have altered the outcome of the underlying litigation is fatal to a malpractice claim.
  • Summary judgment is appropriate when a plaintiff cannot establish a genuine issue of material fact on essential elements of their claim.

Case Summary

Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP, decided by Texas Court of Appeals on February 4, 2026, resulted in a defendant win outcome. The plaintiff, Richard Adame, sued the defendants, George Shake, Marianne Howland, and their law firm, for alleged legal malpractice. Adame claimed that the defendants negligently represented him in a prior lawsuit, leading to an unfavorable outcome. The trial court granted summary judgment in favor of the defendants. The appellate court affirmed the trial court's decision, finding that Adame failed to present sufficient evidence to establish a genuine issue of material fact regarding the defendants' alleged negligence or causation. The court held: The court held that to establish legal malpractice, a plaintiff must prove that the attorney's representation fell below the standard of care and that this negligence was a proximate cause of the plaintiff's damages.. The court found that the plaintiff failed to present expert testimony to establish the standard of care for the attorneys in the prior litigation, a critical element of a legal malpractice claim.. The court determined that the plaintiff did not provide sufficient evidence to create a genuine issue of material fact regarding causation, as he did not demonstrate that but for the alleged negligence, the outcome of the prior lawsuit would have been more favorable.. The court affirmed the trial court's grant of summary judgment because the plaintiff failed to meet his burden of proof on essential elements of his legal malpractice claim.. The court noted that conclusory allegations and speculation are insufficient to defeat a motion for summary judgment.. This case reinforces the high burden of proof plaintiffs face in legal malpractice claims, particularly the necessity of expert testimony to establish the standard of care and causation. It serves as a reminder to attorneys and litigants that conclusory statements are insufficient to survive summary judgment.

AI-generated summary for informational purposes only. Not legal advice. May contain errors. Consult a licensed attorney for legal advice.

Case Analysis — Multiple Perspectives

Plain English (For Everyone)

Imagine you hire a lawyer to help you with a case, and you believe they made mistakes that cost you the case. This court said that if you want to sue your lawyer for malpractice, you have to show concrete proof that their mistakes actually caused you to lose. Just saying they made mistakes isn't enough; you need to show how those mistakes directly led to a bad outcome for you.

For Legal Practitioners

The appellate court affirmed summary judgment for the defendant attorneys, holding the plaintiff failed to establish a prima facie case for legal malpractice. Crucially, the plaintiff did not present sufficient evidence of both negligence and causation, specifically failing to demonstrate how the alleged errors would have altered the outcome of the underlying litigation. This reinforces the heightened burden on plaintiffs in malpractice actions to present specific, admissible evidence on each element, not mere speculation.

For Law Students

This case tests the elements of legal malpractice, specifically the plaintiff's burden to prove both negligence and causation. The court's affirmation of summary judgment highlights that a plaintiff must present evidence showing not only that the attorney's conduct fell below the standard of care but also that this substandard conduct was the proximate cause of the plaintiff's damages. This case is a good example of how failure to meet the evidentiary burden on any element can lead to dismissal.

Newsroom Summary

A Texas appeals court has sided with two lawyers accused of malpractice. The court ruled that a former client, Richard Adame, did not provide enough evidence to prove the lawyers' alleged mistakes directly caused him to lose his previous case. This decision means clients suing lawyers for errors must show concrete proof of harm.

Key Holdings

The court established the following key holdings in this case:

  1. The court held that to establish legal malpractice, a plaintiff must prove that the attorney's representation fell below the standard of care and that this negligence was a proximate cause of the plaintiff's damages.
  2. The court found that the plaintiff failed to present expert testimony to establish the standard of care for the attorneys in the prior litigation, a critical element of a legal malpractice claim.
  3. The court determined that the plaintiff did not provide sufficient evidence to create a genuine issue of material fact regarding causation, as he did not demonstrate that but for the alleged negligence, the outcome of the prior lawsuit would have been more favorable.
  4. The court affirmed the trial court's grant of summary judgment because the plaintiff failed to meet his burden of proof on essential elements of his legal malpractice claim.
  5. The court noted that conclusory allegations and speculation are insufficient to defeat a motion for summary judgment.

Key Takeaways

  1. Plaintiffs in legal malpractice cases must present specific evidence of both attorney negligence and causation.
  2. Failure to demonstrate how an attorney's alleged errors would have altered the outcome of the underlying litigation is fatal to a malpractice claim.
  3. Summary judgment is appropriate when a plaintiff cannot establish a genuine issue of material fact on essential elements of their claim.
  4. The burden is on the plaintiff to prove each element of legal malpractice, not merely to raise a possibility of error.
  5. Adverse rulings in underlying cases do not automatically prove attorney malpractice.

Deep Legal Analysis

Constitutional Issues

First Amendment rights (free speech, petition)Due process

Rule Statements

"The purpose of the TCPA is to protect citizens' rights to speak, petition, and associate freely without fear of reprisal."
"A party moving for dismissal under the TCPA must first establish by a preponderance of the evidence that the claim is based on, relates to, or is in response to the party's exercise of the right of free speech, the right to petition, or the right of association."

Remedies

Denial of motion to dismiss (allowing the case to proceed in the trial court)Potential for attorney's fees and sanctions if a motion to dismiss under the TCPA is granted.

Entities and Participants

Key Takeaways

  1. Plaintiffs in legal malpractice cases must present specific evidence of both attorney negligence and causation.
  2. Failure to demonstrate how an attorney's alleged errors would have altered the outcome of the underlying litigation is fatal to a malpractice claim.
  3. Summary judgment is appropriate when a plaintiff cannot establish a genuine issue of material fact on essential elements of their claim.
  4. The burden is on the plaintiff to prove each element of legal malpractice, not merely to raise a possibility of error.
  5. Adverse rulings in underlying cases do not automatically prove attorney malpractice.

Know Your Rights

Real-world scenarios derived from this court's ruling:

Scenario: You hired an attorney for a business dispute, and you believe they mishandled key evidence, leading to a loss. You want to sue them for malpractice.

Your Rights: You have the right to sue your attorney for legal malpractice if they were negligent and that negligence directly caused you to lose your case or suffer damages. However, you must be able to provide specific evidence showing both the attorney's error and how that error led to the negative outcome.

What To Do: Gather all documentation related to your original case and your attorney's representation. Consult with a new attorney specializing in legal malpractice to assess if you have sufficient evidence of negligence and causation. Be prepared to present expert testimony in a new lawsuit explaining how the original attorney's actions fell below the standard of care and what the likely outcome would have been with proper representation.

Is It Legal?

Common legal questions answered by this ruling:

Is it legal to sue my lawyer if I think they made a mistake that cost me my case?

Yes, it is legal to sue your lawyer for malpractice if you believe their negligence caused you harm. However, you must be able to prove two key things: (1) that your lawyer's actions fell below the accepted standard of care for attorneys in your jurisdiction, and (2) that this failure directly caused you to lose your case or suffer financial damages. Simply being unhappy with the outcome is not enough; you need concrete evidence of the lawyer's error and its impact.

This ruling applies in Texas. While the principles of legal malpractice are similar across jurisdictions, specific procedural rules and evidentiary standards may vary.

Practical Implications

For Attorneys

This ruling reinforces the importance of thorough documentation and strategic case management. Attorneys facing malpractice claims must be prepared to demonstrate that their actions met the professional standard of care and, if challenged, that any alleged errors did not cause prejudice to their client's case. It highlights the need for clear communication and evidence preservation.

For Litigants considering malpractice suits

Individuals who believe they have been victims of legal malpractice must understand the high evidentiary bar. They need more than just a belief that their lawyer erred; they must be able to present specific, admissible evidence proving both the error and its direct causal link to their loss. Consulting with a specialized malpractice attorney early is crucial to assess the viability of a claim.

Related Legal Concepts

Legal Malpractice
A claim brought by a client against an attorney for damages resulting from the a...
Standard of Care
The level of care, skill, and diligence that a reasonably prudent professional w...
Causation
The legal link between a defendant's action or inaction and the plaintiff's harm...
Summary Judgment
A decision granted by a court when there are no genuine disputes over material f...
Prima Facie Case
A case in which the plaintiff has presented sufficient evidence on all elements ...

Frequently Asked Questions (42)

Comprehensive Q&A covering every aspect of this court opinion.

Basic Questions (10)

Q: What is Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP about?

Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP is a case decided by Texas Court of Appeals on February 4, 2026. It involves Damages.

Q: What court decided Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP?

Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP was decided by the Texas Court of Appeals, which is part of the TX state court system. This is a state appellate court.

Q: When was Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP decided?

Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP was decided on February 4, 2026.

Q: What is the citation for Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP?

The citation for Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP is . Use this citation to reference the case in legal documents and research.

Q: What type of case is Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP?

Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP is classified as a "Damages" case. This describes the nature of the legal dispute at issue.

Q: What is the case name and who are the parties involved in Richard Adame v. George Shake?

The case is Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP. Richard Adame is the plaintiff who sued the defendants, George Shake, Marianne Howland, and their law firm, Howland Shake Law, LLP, alleging legal malpractice.

Q: What court decided the case of Richard Adame v. George Shake?

The case was decided by the Texas Court of Appeals (texapp). This court reviewed the decision of the trial court that had granted summary judgment in favor of the defendants.

Q: What was the core legal issue in Richard Adame v. George Shake?

The core legal issue was whether Richard Adame presented sufficient evidence to overcome the defendants' motion for summary judgment on his legal malpractice claim. Adame alleged that George Shake and Marianne Howland negligently represented him in a prior lawsuit.

Q: What was the outcome of the trial court's decision in Richard Adame v. George Shake?

The trial court granted summary judgment in favor of the defendants, George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP. This means the trial court found that there were no genuine issues of material fact and the defendants were entitled to judgment as a matter of law.

Q: What was the final decision of the appellate court in Richard Adame v. George Shake?

The Texas Court of Appeals affirmed the trial court's decision. The appellate court found that Adame failed to present sufficient evidence to create a genuine issue of material fact regarding the defendants' alleged negligence or causation.

Legal Analysis (16)

Q: Is Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP published?

Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP is a published, precedential opinion. Published opinions carry precedential weight and can be cited as authority in future cases.

Q: What was the ruling in Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP?

The court ruled in favor of the defendant in Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP. Key holdings: The court held that to establish legal malpractice, a plaintiff must prove that the attorney's representation fell below the standard of care and that this negligence was a proximate cause of the plaintiff's damages.; The court found that the plaintiff failed to present expert testimony to establish the standard of care for the attorneys in the prior litigation, a critical element of a legal malpractice claim.; The court determined that the plaintiff did not provide sufficient evidence to create a genuine issue of material fact regarding causation, as he did not demonstrate that but for the alleged negligence, the outcome of the prior lawsuit would have been more favorable.; The court affirmed the trial court's grant of summary judgment because the plaintiff failed to meet his burden of proof on essential elements of his legal malpractice claim.; The court noted that conclusory allegations and speculation are insufficient to defeat a motion for summary judgment..

Q: Why is Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP important?

Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP has an impact score of 15/100, indicating narrow legal impact. This case reinforces the high burden of proof plaintiffs face in legal malpractice claims, particularly the necessity of expert testimony to establish the standard of care and causation. It serves as a reminder to attorneys and litigants that conclusory statements are insufficient to survive summary judgment.

Q: What precedent does Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP set?

Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP established the following key holdings: (1) The court held that to establish legal malpractice, a plaintiff must prove that the attorney's representation fell below the standard of care and that this negligence was a proximate cause of the plaintiff's damages. (2) The court found that the plaintiff failed to present expert testimony to establish the standard of care for the attorneys in the prior litigation, a critical element of a legal malpractice claim. (3) The court determined that the plaintiff did not provide sufficient evidence to create a genuine issue of material fact regarding causation, as he did not demonstrate that but for the alleged negligence, the outcome of the prior lawsuit would have been more favorable. (4) The court affirmed the trial court's grant of summary judgment because the plaintiff failed to meet his burden of proof on essential elements of his legal malpractice claim. (5) The court noted that conclusory allegations and speculation are insufficient to defeat a motion for summary judgment.

Q: What are the key holdings in Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP?

1. The court held that to establish legal malpractice, a plaintiff must prove that the attorney's representation fell below the standard of care and that this negligence was a proximate cause of the plaintiff's damages. 2. The court found that the plaintiff failed to present expert testimony to establish the standard of care for the attorneys in the prior litigation, a critical element of a legal malpractice claim. 3. The court determined that the plaintiff did not provide sufficient evidence to create a genuine issue of material fact regarding causation, as he did not demonstrate that but for the alleged negligence, the outcome of the prior lawsuit would have been more favorable. 4. The court affirmed the trial court's grant of summary judgment because the plaintiff failed to meet his burden of proof on essential elements of his legal malpractice claim. 5. The court noted that conclusory allegations and speculation are insufficient to defeat a motion for summary judgment.

Q: What cases are related to Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP?

Precedent cases cited or related to Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP: 780 S.W.2d 799 (Tex. App.—Houston [1st Dist.] 1989, writ denied); 907 S.W.2d 79 (Tex. 1995).

Q: What is legal malpractice?

Legal malpractice occurs when an attorney's negligence in representing a client causes harm or damages to that client. To prove legal malpractice, a plaintiff typically must show that the attorney breached the standard of care and that this breach caused the client's damages.

Q: What standard did the court apply when reviewing the summary judgment in Adame v. Shake?

The court applied the de novo standard of review for summary judgment. This means the appellate court reviewed the evidence and legal arguments independently, without giving deference to the trial court's ruling, to determine if summary judgment was proper.

Q: What evidence did Adame need to present to defeat summary judgment on his malpractice claim?

Adame needed to present sufficient evidence to establish a genuine issue of material fact on each element of his legal malpractice claim. This includes showing that the defendants breached the applicable standard of care and that this breach caused his damages.

Q: What is the 'but for' causation standard in legal malpractice cases?

The 'but for' causation standard requires the plaintiff to prove that 'but for' the attorney's alleged negligence, the client would have achieved a more favorable result in the underlying lawsuit. Adame had to show that the defendants' actions directly led to his unfavorable outcome.

Q: What did the court find regarding Adame's evidence of negligence?

The court found that Adame failed to present sufficient evidence to establish a genuine issue of material fact regarding the defendants' alleged negligence. This means the evidence Adame offered did not raise a question that a jury needed to decide about whether the attorneys acted below the required standard of care.

Q: What did the court find regarding Adame's evidence of causation?

The court found that Adame failed to present sufficient evidence to establish a genuine issue of material fact regarding causation. He did not adequately demonstrate that the alleged negligence of George Shake and Marianne Howland was the 'but for' cause of his damages in the prior lawsuit.

Q: What is summary judgment?

Summary judgment is a procedural device used in civil litigation where a party asks the court to rule in their favor without a full trial. It is granted if the pleadings, discovery, and any affidavits show that there is no genuine dispute as to any material fact and that the movant is entitled to judgment as a matter of law.

Q: What is the 'burden of proof' in a summary judgment motion?

The party moving for summary judgment (here, the defendants) has the initial burden to show that there are no genuine issues of material fact and they are entitled to judgment as a matter of law. If they meet this burden, the burden shifts to the non-moving party (Adame) to present evidence raising a genuine issue of material fact.

Q: Did Adame present expert testimony to support his malpractice claim?

The summary judgment record, as described in the opinion, indicates Adame did not present sufficient evidence to establish a genuine issue of material fact. While the opinion doesn't detail every piece of evidence, the lack of sufficient evidence implies that any expert testimony provided was deemed inadequate to meet the summary judgment standard.

Q: What is the 'standard of care' for attorneys in Texas?

In Texas, attorneys are held to the standard of care that a reasonably prudent attorney would exercise under similar circumstances. Failure to meet this standard can constitute negligence, forming the basis of a legal malpractice claim.

Practical Implications (6)

Q: How does Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP affect me?

This case reinforces the high burden of proof plaintiffs face in legal malpractice claims, particularly the necessity of expert testimony to establish the standard of care and causation. It serves as a reminder to attorneys and litigants that conclusory statements are insufficient to survive summary judgment. As a decision from a state appellate court, its reach is limited to the state jurisdiction. This case is moderate in legal complexity to understand.

Q: Who is affected by the ruling in Richard Adame v. George Shake?

The ruling directly affects Richard Adame, who will not be able to pursue his legal malpractice claim against George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP, based on the evidence presented. It also reinforces the requirements for plaintiffs in legal malpractice cases seeking to survive summary judgment.

Q: What is the practical implication for clients considering a legal malpractice lawsuit?

Clients considering a legal malpractice lawsuit must be prepared to present concrete evidence demonstrating both the attorney's negligence and how that negligence directly caused their damages. Simply alleging an unfavorable outcome is insufficient to survive a summary judgment motion.

Q: What does this ruling mean for law firms in Texas?

This ruling reinforces the importance of robust documentation and clear communication in attorney-client relationships. Law firms can be more confident in summary judgment if clients cannot produce specific evidence of negligence or causation, but it also highlights the need for attorneys to diligently represent clients to avoid such claims.

Q: How might this case impact the cost of legal services?

While not directly addressed, such rulings can indirectly influence the cost of legal services. Law firms might increase malpractice insurance premiums or implement more stringent internal review processes, which could eventually be factored into billing.

Q: What happens to Adame's original lawsuit where he was represented by Shake and Howland?

The opinion in Adame v. Shake focuses solely on the legal malpractice claim. The outcome of the original lawsuit where Adame was represented by Shake and Howland is not detailed, but Adame's claim is that the outcome of that prior suit was unfavorable due to the defendants' alleged negligence.

Historical Context (3)

Q: Does this case relate to any specific Texas statutes on legal malpractice?

While the opinion doesn't explicitly cite a specific Texas statute governing legal malpractice, it applies general Texas procedural rules for summary judgment and common law principles of negligence and causation, which are foundational to legal malpractice claims in Texas.

Q: How does this ruling fit into the broader landscape of attorney ethics?

This case fits into the broader landscape by reinforcing the professional responsibility attorneys have to their clients. While it doesn't create new ethical rules, it demonstrates the legal consequences, specifically through malpractice litigation, when that responsibility is perceived to have been breached.

Q: Are there landmark Texas cases on legal malpractice that Adame v. Shake builds upon?

Yes, Adame v. Shake operates within the established framework of Texas legal malpractice jurisprudence, which relies on common law principles of negligence. Cases like 'Moore v. Kirkpatrick' and others have previously defined the elements of a legal malpractice claim and the causation standards required in Texas.

Procedural Questions (4)

Q: What was the docket number in Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP?

The docket number for Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP is 07-26-00026-CV. This identifier is used to track the case through the court system.

Q: Can Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP be appealed?

Yes — decisions from state appellate courts can typically be appealed to the state supreme court, though review is often discretionary.

Q: How did Richard Adame's case reach the Texas Court of Appeals?

Richard Adame's case reached the Texas Court of Appeals after the trial court granted summary judgment in favor of the defendants. Adame appealed this decision, arguing that the trial court erred in granting the summary judgment and that there were genuine issues of material fact requiring a trial.

Q: What is the significance of the 'de novo' review standard in this procedural context?

The 'de novo' review standard is significant because it means the appellate court reviewed the entire summary judgment record from scratch. This procedural posture allowed the court to independently assess whether Adame's evidence was sufficient to prevent summary judgment, rather than simply looking for errors made by the trial judge.

Cited Precedents

This opinion references the following precedent cases:

  • 780 S.W.2d 799 (Tex. App.—Houston [1st Dist.] 1989, writ denied)
  • 907 S.W.2d 79 (Tex. 1995)

Case Details

Case NameRichard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP
Citation
CourtTexas Court of Appeals
Date Filed2026-02-04
Docket Number07-26-00026-CV
Precedential StatusPublished
Nature of SuitDamages
OutcomeDefendant Win
Dispositionaffirmed
Impact Score15 / 100
SignificanceThis case reinforces the high burden of proof plaintiffs face in legal malpractice claims, particularly the necessity of expert testimony to establish the standard of care and causation. It serves as a reminder to attorneys and litigants that conclusory statements are insufficient to survive summary judgment.
Complexitymoderate
Legal TopicsLegal Malpractice, Standard of Care for Attorneys, Causation in Legal Malpractice, Summary Judgment Burden of Proof, Expert Testimony Requirements
Jurisdictiontx

Related Legal Resources

Texas Court of Appeals Opinions Legal MalpracticeStandard of Care for AttorneysCausation in Legal MalpracticeSummary Judgment Burden of ProofExpert Testimony Requirements tx Jurisdiction Know Your Rights: Legal MalpracticeKnow Your Rights: Standard of Care for AttorneysKnow Your Rights: Causation in Legal Malpractice Home Search Cases Is It Legal? 2026 Cases All Courts All Topics States Rankings Legal Malpractice GuideStandard of Care for Attorneys Guide Res ipsa loquitur (not applicable here) (Legal Term)Burden of proof on summary judgment (Legal Term)Proximate cause (Legal Term)Standard of care (Legal Term) Legal Malpractice Topic HubStandard of Care for Attorneys Topic HubCausation in Legal Malpractice Topic Hub

About This Analysis

This comprehensive multi-pass AI-generated analysis of Richard Adame v. George Shake, Marianne Howland, and Howland Shake Law, LLP was produced by CaseLawBrief to help legal professionals, researchers, students, and the general public understand this court opinion in plain English. This case received our HEAVY-tier enrichment with 5 AI analysis passes covering core analysis, deep legal structure, comprehensive FAQ, multi-audience summaries, and cross-case practical intelligence.

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